Anthropology and Sustainability

Learning Objectives

- the connections between anthropology and sustainability

- useful definitions of sustainability that resonate with the anthropological perspective

- how anthropologists have approached the study of people and ecosystems throughout the history of the discipline of anthropology

- some of the current frameworks in environmental anthropology, including the study of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and ethnoecology

- the importance of some of the major issues in sustainability studies

Review Questions

1. What are some of the unique contributions that the study of the fields of anthropology can make to the discussion of sustainability solutions?

2. How have the ways that anthropologists have approached ecological studies changed over the years?

3. How is the loss of biodiversity encouraging current studies of ethnoecology and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK)?

4. How do the results of climate change show social and political inequities?

Discussion Questions

1. The health of our planet’s oceans is suffering due to human practices. How has global use of the ocean resulted in a “tragedy of the commons”? Do you know of any alternative approaches to the uses of ocean resources?

2. Can you think of ways that modern alternative food movements are aligned with Bodley’s idea of “culture scale”?

3. Have you had a personal experience that caused you to think differently about nature or our place in it?

Chapter Outline and Key Points

Introduction: Anthropology and Sustainability

Anthropologists are uniquely suited to study sustainability issues due to their focus on humans in their environments and the connections between local issues and global processes.

History of Human-Environment Relations

As hunter-gatherers, humans lived within the limits of what the environment could produce. With the rise of cultivation and later, full-blown agriculture, the environment came to be seen as a resource to be exploited for human purposes. Just in the last several hundred years, and especially during the mid-twentieth century, consumption of natural resources has exploded, leaving environmental degradation in its wake. This ecological collapse is coupled with a cultural shift toward individualism.

Defining Sustainability

While there are many ways to define sustainability, a definition that resonates with the anthropological perspective must take into account whether people get their environmental, social, and economic needs met. This echoes the Iroquois notion of considering the impact of decisions made today on the next seven generations. The most fundamental of these “pillars” of sustainability is environmental, since access to natural resources is crucial for all aspects of society. Participatory action research, or PAR, is an approach to anthropological research that emphasizes collaboration with local people, empowering community actors to meet their needs and goals. The notion of the “tragedy of the commons” often causes organizations and governments to privatize natural resources; however, this can lead to further problems for the people reliant on those resources.

Anthropological Approaches to Sustainability Studies

Since the early years of the discipline, anthropologists have approached the adaptations of humans to their environments in different ways. These frameworks include Julian Steward’s Cultural Ecology, ecological anthropology and systems theory, political ecology, and environmental anthropology. Within environmental anthropology, practitioners may subscribe to an ethnoecological approach. They also may contribute to the growing body of Traditional Ecological Knowledge, which can be used by external sources.

Issues in Sustainability Studies

Population growth is at the heart of sustainability issues because it is closely correlated with environmental degradation, increased consumption, and economic growth. Globalization of food and increased consumption of commodities in developed countries has also increased the demands placed on the resources of developing countries. Damage from the effects of climate change is more frequent and more intense than it has ever been. The effects of climate disasters show clear environmental inequality, with poorer populations suffering the most.

How Can Anthropologists Help?

Anthropologists are in the position to spread awareness and knowledge based on their training in anthropology, ability to disseminate information to the wider public, and the fact that most anthropologists teach on college and university campuses and thus have the power to engage the next generation.

Glossary

Anthropocene: the current geologic era, in which it is widely recognized that human activities have made lasting impacts on our planet

atoll: a ring-shaped reef, island, or series of small islands made of coral

biodiversity: the variety of life on Earth, including plants, animals, and microorganisms; the diversity of living organisms in a given ecosystem, area, or the world

climate refugees: people who have been forced to leave their country of residence due to the impacts of climate, especially climate change

conflict minerals: natural resources mined in an area where there is conflict (such as civil war) and used to fuel or fund the conflict, commit crimes, or perpetrate human rights abuses

cultural ecology: a framework of understanding culture by examining the limitations of the environment and food-getting practices

culture core: features of culture that are similar in societies practicing the same food-getting strategies; an aspect of the cultural ecology model

culture scale: the scope or reach of culture; implied is the idea that smaller-scale societies are more sustainable than larger-scale societies

ecological anthropology: a framework of understanding culture that uses systems theory to understand a population as a closed-loop system

economic sustainability: the ability of the economy to support indefinite growth while ensuring a minimum quality of life for all members of society

environmental anthropologist: an anthropologist interested in the relationships between people and the environment

environmental sustainability: the ability of the environment to renew resources and accommodate waste at the same rate at which resources are used and waste is generated

ethnoecologist: a person who studies the interactions a group of people has with their natural environment, focusing especially on the use of flora and fauna

hotspot: region in which there is a high concentration of native plant and animal species and a high rate of biodiversity loss

human ecology: the study of the complex relationships between humans and their environments

multilinear cultural evolution: the idea that the social structure of a group is directly tied to the demands of its environment

organic: a process of growing food that prohibits the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers, irradiation, or genetic modification

paradigm: set of concepts; a model

participatory action research (PAR): an applied anthropological method of field research and implementation of solutions; relies on close collaboration with the target community

political ecology: a framework of understanding culture that focuses on the complex relationships between the environment, economics, and politics

privatization: selling ownership of public resources to private companies

social sustainability: the ability of social systems (such as a family, community, region, or nation) to provide for the needs of their people so that they can attain a stable and healthy standard of living

sustainability: the ability to keep something in existence, to support a practice indefinitely

systems theory: a model of understanding an ecosystem that assumes the ecosystem is a closed-loop system with finite resources

three pillars of sustainability: a model of sustainable development with three components: sustainability of the environment, society, and the economy

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK): the collective and cumulative knowledge that a group of people has gained over many generations living in their particular ecosystem

tragedy of the commons: the idea that individual actors sharing a natural resource will inevitably act in their own best interest, eventually depleting the resource

universal (linear) evolution: an outdated idea that all cultural groups progress through the same stages of modernization, from simple to complex

worldview: the way a group understands and interprets the world; includes all aspects of culture