In this chapter, students will learn:

• the connections between anthropology and sustainability
• useful definitions of sustainability that resonate with the anthropological perspective
• how anthropologists have approached the study of people and ecosystems throughout the history of the discipline of anthropology
• some of the current frameworks in environmental anthropology, including the study of Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) and ethnoecology
• the importance of some of the major issues in sustainability studies

Introduction: Anthropology and Sustainability

Anthropologists are uniquely suited to study sustainability issues due to their focus on humans in their environments and the connections between local issues and global processes.

History of Human-Environment Relations

As hunter-gatherers, humans lived within the limits of what the environment could produce. With the rise of cultivation and later, full-blown agriculture, the environment came to be seen as a resource to be exploited for human purposes. Just in the last several hundred years, and especially during the mid-twentieth century, consumption of natural resources has exploded, leaving environmental degradation in its wake. This ecological collapse is coupled with a cultural shift toward individualism.

Defining Sustainability

While there are many ways to define sustainability, a definition that resonates with the anthropological perspective must take into account whether people get their environmental, social, and economic needs met. This echoes the Iroquois notion of considering the impact of decisions made today on the next seven generations. The most fundamental of these “pillars” of sustainability is environmental, since access to natural resources is crucial for all aspects of society. Participatory action research, or PAR, is an approach to anthropological research that emphasizes collaboration with local people, empowering community actors to meet their needs and goals. The notion of the “tragedy of the commons” often causes organizations and governments to privatize natural resources; however, this can lead to further problems for the people reliant on those resources.

Anthropological Approaches to Sustainability Studies

Since the early years of the discipline, anthropologists have approached the adaptations of humans to their environments in different ways. These frameworks include Julian Steward’s Cultural Ecology, ecological anthropology and systems theory, political ecology, and environmental anthropology. Within environmental anthropology, practitioners may subscribe to an ethnoecological approach. They also may contribute to the growing body of Traditional Ecological Knowledge, which can be used by external sources.

Issues in Sustainability Studies

Population growth is at the heart of sustainability issues because it is closely correlated with environmental degradation, increased consumption, and economic growth. Globalization of food and increased consumption of commodities in developed countries has also increased the demands placed on the resources of developing countries. Damage from the effects of climate change is more frequent and more intense than it has ever been. The effects of climate disasters show clear environmental inequality, with poorer populations suffering the most.

How Can Anthropologists Help?

Anthropologists are in the position to spread awareness and knowledge based on their training in anthropology, ability to disseminate information to the wider public, and the fact that most anthropologists teach on college and university campuses and thus have the power to engage the next generation

1. What are some of the unique contributions that the study of the fields of anthropology can make to the discussion of sustainability solutions?

2. How have the ways that anthropologists have approached ecological studies changed over the years?

3. How is the loss of biodiversity encouraging current studies of ethnoecology and Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK)?

4. How do the results of climate change show social and political inequalities?

1. The health of our planet’s oceans is suffering due to human practices. How has global use of the ocean resulted in a “tragedy of the commons”?

2. Can you think of ways that modern alternative food movements are aligned with Bodley’s idea of “culture scale”?

3. Have you had a personal experience that caused you to think differently about nature or our place in it?

Anthropocene (page 257): the current geologic era, in which it is widely recognized that human activities have made lasting impacts on our planet

atoll (page 270): a ring-shaped reef, island, or series of small islands made of coral

biodiversity (page 269): the variety of life on Earth, including plants, animals, and microorganisms; the diversity of living organisms in a given ecosystem, area, or the world

climate refugees (page 270): (page 270): people who have been forced to leave their country of residence due to the impacts of climate, especially climate change

conflict minerals (page 268): natural resources mined in an area where there is conflict (such as civil war) and used to fuel or fund the conflict, commit crimes, or perpetrate human rights abuses

cultural ecology (page 262): a framework of understanding culture by examining the limitations of the environment and food-getting practices

culture core (page 263): features of culture that are similar in societies practicing the same food-getting strategies; an aspect of the cultural ecology model

culture scale (page 255): the scope or reach of culture; implied is the idea that smaller-scale societies are more sustainable than larger-scale societies

ecological anthropology (page 263): a framework of understanding culture that uses systems theory to understand a population as a closed-loop system

economic sustainability (page 259): the ability of the economy to support indefinite growth while ensuring a minimum quality of life for all members of society

environmental antrhropologist (page 264): an anthropologist interested in the relationships between people and the environment

environmental sustainability (page 259): the ability of the environment to renew resources and accommodate waste at the same rate at which resources are used and waste is generated

ethnoecologist (page 265): a person who studies the interactions a group of people has with their natural environment, focusing especially on the use of flora and fauna

Fair Trade (page 265): a social and economic model aimed at supporting food and craft producers in developing countries by promoting equity and fair pricing

hotspot (page 271): region in which there is a high concentration of native plant and animal species and a high rate of biodiversity loss

human ecology (page 253): the study of the complex relationships between humans and their environments

multilinear cultural evolution (page 263): the idea that the social structure of a group is directly tied to the demands of its environment

organic (page 272): a process of growing food that prohibits the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides, or fertilizers, irradiation, or genetic modification

paradigm (page 262): set of concepts; a model

participatory action research (PAR) (page 260): an applied anthropological method of field research and implementation of solutions; relies on close collaboration with the target community

political ecology (page 264): a framework of understanding culture that focuses on the complex relationships between the environment, economics, and politics

privatization (page 261): selling ownership of public resources to private companies

social sustainability (page 259): the ability of social systems (such as a family, community, region, or nation) to provide for the needs of their people so that they can attain a stable and healthy standard of living

sustainability (page 254): the ability to keep something in existence, to support a practice indefinitely

systems theory (page 263): a model of understanding an ecosystem that assumes the ecosystem is a closed-loop system with finite resources

three pillars of sustainabilty (page 259): a model of sustainable development with three components: sustainability of the environment, society, and the economy

Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) (page 266): the collective and cumulative knowledge that a group of people has gained over many generations living in their particular ecosystem

tragedy of the commons (page 261): the idea that individual actors sharing a natural resource will inevitably act in their own best interest, eventually depleting the resource

universal (linear) evolution (page 263): an outdated idea that all cultural groups progress through the same stages of modernization, from simple to complex

worldview (page 265): the way a group understands and interprets the world; includes all aspects of culture

Anthropology and Environment Society of the American Anthropological Association (AE)
www.aaanet.org

National Water Footprint
www.waterfootprint.org

United Nations Millennium Development Goals
www.un.org

United States Census Bureau Population Clock
www.cencus.gov

IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature
www.iucn.org

WWF Living Planet Report
wwf.panda.org

Earth Policy Institute: Plan B Updates
www.earth-policy.org

Cultural Survival
www.culturalsurvival.org

UNESCO Teaching and Learning for a Sustainable Future
www.unesco.org

The Cloud Institute for Sustainability Education
www.cloudinstitute.org

Cruikshank, J. (2005). Do glaciers listen? Local knowledge, colonial encounters, and social imagination. Seattle: University of Washington Press.

Fratkin, E., & Mearns, R. (2003). Sustainability and pastoral livelihoods: Lessons from East African Maasai and Mongolia. Human Organization, 62(2), 112–22.

Haenn, N., & Wilk, R. (2006). The environment in anthropology. New York: New York University

Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162, 1243–48.

Inda, J.X., & Rosaldo, R. (2008). The anthropology of globalization: A reader. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Jacques, P. (2014). Sustainability: The basics. New York: Routledge.

Mander, J., & Tauli-Corpuz, V. (2006). Paradigm wars: Indigenous peoples’ resistance to globalization. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books

Maybury-Lewis, D. (1992). Millennium: Tribal wisdom and the modern world. New York: Viking Adult.

Moran, E. (2006). People and nature: An introduction to human ecological relations. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.

Nützenadel, A., & Trentmann, F. (2008). Food and globalization: Consumption, markets and politics in the modern world. New York: Berg.

Townsend, P.K., (2000). Environmental anthropology: From pigs to policies (2nd ed.). Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press

1. What are the central tenets of sustainability and how has it been defined in different ways?

Your answer should demonstrate an understanding of the common aspects of sustainability while acknowledging that various peoples and times have defined it differently. You can include some of the following varied definitions:

• The central tenet of sustainability is the ability to keep something in existence indefinitely. This does not apply to the Earth, which is a closed-loop system.
• The 1987 Brundtland Commission of the United Nations defined it as “meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
• Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) peoples believe that people today are stewards of future resources of the planet for the seventh generation to come.

See pages 257-258 of your text.

2. What are the differences between the three pillars of sustainability and the concentric model of sustainability?

Your answer should describe both models in detail and then discuss the significant differences between them.

• Three Pillars of Sustainability
• To be sustainable, development would need to support social, environmental, and economic aspects of life.
• There are outcomes that are based on two successful pillars (e.g., when the environment interfaces with society, life would be bearable); however, all three pillars are required for sustainability.
• Concentric Model of Sustainability
• Adapted from the Three Pillars approach.
• Places greater emphasis on the environment; without a healthy environment, social and economic systems would not function.
• Assumes that the environment is the priority, and an interface between social and economic systems is secondary.

See pages 259-260 of your text.



3. What is the “tragedy of the commons”? Provide an example of this phenomenon and of people contesting this phenomenon.

Your answer should demonstrate that you understand the tragedy of the commons and how it develops. Your examples should clearly illustrate this phenomenon.

• The tragedy of the commons is a concept developed by Garrett Hardin. It refers to the loss of common or shared resources due to overpopulation.
• As people want to increase their own wealth, they use a greater share of the common resources. As individual wealth increases, the common resources decrease until none are left.
• The most common example of this phenomenon is the use of common pastures to graze cattle by herdsmen and farmers. The herds eventually increased until the common pastures were overgrazed and depleted. The common pastures either disappeared or were privatized as a result.
• Not all groups seek individual profit as the goal of using a resource. An example countering this phenomenon can be seen among whalers of the Makah nation, who cooperated to stop hunting whale when the whale became endangered.

See pages 261-262 of your text.



4. What is Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK)? Is the study of TEK positive or negative?

Your answer should demonstrate an understanding of TEK and the potential outcomes of its study. This should include the following:

• TEK is the study of the collective and cumulative knowledge that a group of people has gained by living in their particular ecosystem.
• TEK undermines stereotypes about the “simple” or “natural” lives of Indigenous peoples while emphasizing the knowledge that they have gained about their environment
• TEK can be used as a positive or negative thing, based on how it is contextualized.
• If framed properly, it can provide insights into how local ecosystems are interconnected and provide tools for managing the long-term sustainability of a given area.
• If taken out of context and presented as individual factoids, TEK data can be misconstrued and misused to damage the interconnected nature of local ecosystems and disenfranchise Indigenous groups.

See pages 266-267 of your text.



5. How can anthropologists help the understanding and development of sustainable systems? Provide examples.

Your answer should acknowledge that the long-range and holistic perspective on the connection between local and global systems is a major strength of anthropology that can help the understanding and development of sustainable systems. Your answer should also include the following points:

• Anthropological methodologies are inherently focused on learning about people and their connection to their environment through long-term observation. This can illuminate the consequences that environmental and systems changes have for people.
• Anthropology has the ability to engage with the general public through personal stories and to encourage people to consider the consequences of particular actions or developments.
• Anthropology is taught at college and university levels, and so it has the opportunity to affect a large number of students and the campus community.

See pages 271-272 of your text.