In this chapter students will learn:

• about the variety of stable marriage and family patterns across cultures
• about different rules for taking one or multiple spouses
• the correlates of different kinds of family and residence patterns
• about marriage as an economic exchange between families that requires compensation
• how different societies trace their family lineages
• about different forms of kinship

Introduction: Marriage and Family

Marriage practices and family organization differ across cultures. The most common type of family throughout time and across cultures has been the extended (or joint) family, with nuclear families becoming common more recently.

Defining Marriage

Marriage can be defined by three basic characteristics: sexual relations that are sanctioned by society, a division of labor in the household with shared economic resources, and the social legitimacy and legal rights of children from the union.

Spouses: How Many and Who is Eligible?

Marriage unions may be monogamous, polygynous, polyandrous, or other, based on and intertwined with the larger structures in society. Cultural rules dictate whether marriages should be exogamous or endogamous, with the exception of incest, a type of close endogamy that is (nearly) universally taboo.

Family Residence Patterns

A household consists of people who contribute to child rearing, the consumption and production of goods, and share inheritance. Nuclear families live in neolocal households, and extended families live in matrilocal or patrilocal households, depending upon the society’s marriage patterns.

Marriage as Economic Exchange

The exchange of spouses usually requires some form of economic compensation or sharing of resources, based on which extended family household welcomes the new couple. When the bride leaves her family of orientation, bride price or bride service may be required. When the groom leaves his family of orientation or a couple takes up neolocal residence, a dowry may be required. Arranged marriages have been the norm for most of human history and are still practiced today in societies around the world, such as India, where the textbook’s author has conducted field research.

Kinship

Kinship carries a set of roles based on family relationships, including fictive ones. Descent may be reckoned unilineally or bilaterally.

1. What are the different marriage and family types that exist across cultures?

2. How do marriage rules and residence patterns overlap?

3. What are the biocultural benefits of exogamy?

4. What types of compensation are given in different marriage exchanges?

5. What are the different forms of kinship, besides a family related by blood and marriage?

6. What kinds of social expectations are linked to descent groups and lineages?

1. What makes a “good” family?

2. Are marriage tendencies in North America exogamous or endogamous? Why?

3. In what ways are dating and having an arranged marriage similar?

affinal (page 151): related by marriage

arranged marriage (page 155): the practice in which parents find a suitable husband or wife for their child

bilateral descent (page 159): tracing one’s genealogy through both the mother’s and father’s lines

bride price (page 151): (page 152): a form of marriage compensation in which the family of the groom is required to present valuable gifts to the bride’s family

bride service (page 151): (page 153): a form of marriage compensation in which the family of the groom is required to work for the bride’s family

child marriage (page 155): the practice in which parents marry young girls to older men who offer to provide for them

clan (page 147): a social division that separates members of a society into two groups; also called a moiety

conjugal (page 150): referring to marriage or the married couple

consanguineal (page 151): related by blood

descent group (page 158): a social group of people who trace their descent from a particular ancestor

dowry (page 154): a form of marriage compensation in which the family of the bride is required to present valuable gifts to the groom’s family or to the couple

dowry death (page 154): death of women who live in the homes of their in-laws due to unmet dowry demands

endogamy (page 147): the practice of marrying within one’s social or ancestral group

exogamy (page 147): the practice of marrying outside one’s social or ancestral group

extended family (page 151): a family unit consisting of blood-related members and their spouses; a mix of consanguineal and affinal kin

family of orientation (page 144): blood-related family members, including parents, siblings, grandparents, and other relatives

family of procreation (page 144): the family unit created by marriage or partnership, including spouses/partners and children

fictive kinship (page 157): the practice of extending the expectations and naming conventions of blood-related family members to people who are non-blood related

forced marriage (page 155): the practice in which parents demand their child marry someone the parents have chosen

fraternal polyandry (page 147): the practice of marrying brothers

group marriage (page 145): the marriage practice of having multiple spouses who may be from both sexes

hijra (page 158): a third-gender role found in India and Pakistan in which people assigned male sex at birth or intersex individuals adopt feminine gender expression

household (page 150): a domestic unit of residence in which members contribute to child rearing, inheritance, and the production and consumption of goods

incest taboo (page 148): prohibition against sexual relations with immediate family members

joint family (page 142 and 151): the term used in India to describe a family unit consisting of blood-related members and their spouses; extended family

kinship (page 157): family relations; involves a complex set of expectations and responsibilities

marriage (page 141): the practice of creating socially and legally recognized partnerships in society

marriage compensation (page 152): gifts or service exchanged between the families of a bride and groom

matrilineal descent (page 159): tracing one’s genealogy through the mother’s line

matrilocal (page 151): a residence pattern in which a husband moves to his wife’s household of orientation

monogamy (page 144): the marriage practice of having a single spouse

neolocal (page 150): a residence pattern in which a husband and wife move to their own household after marriage

nuclear family (page 150): a family unit consisting of two generations, most often parents and their children

nurture kinship (page 158): non-blood relationships based on mutual caring and attachment

patrilineal descent (page 159): tracing one’s genealogy through the father’s line

patrilocal (page 151): a residence pattern in which a wife moves to her husband’s household of orientation

polyandry (page 147): the marriage practice of having two or more husbands at the same time

polygamy (page 145): the marriage practice of having two or more spouses

polygyny (page 146): the marriage practice of having two or more wives at the same time

queer kinship (page 158): family-like bonds between members of gay, transgender, or other LGBTQ+ communities

serial monogamy (page 144): the marriage practice of taking a series of partners, one after the other

totem (page 159): a mythological ancestor linking people together in kinship ties

unilineal descent (page 159): tracing one’s genealogy through either the mother’s or father’s line

American Anthropological Association Statement on Marriage and the Family
www.aaanet.org

Open Anthropology: A Public Journal of the AAA—“Marriage and Other Arrangements” edition
www.americananthro.org

Marriage Systems: Anthropology Tutorial created by Brian Schwimmer (University of Manitoba)
www.umanitoba.ca

Cultural Anthropology/Marriage, Reproduction, and Kinship (open-access wikibook)
www.wikibooks.org

Living Anthropologically (blog): Explaining Kinship by Jason Antrosio
www.livinganthropologically.org

Carsten, J. (2000). Cultures of relatedness: New approaches to the study of kinship. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Counihan, C.M. (2004). Around the Tuscan table: Family and gender in twentieth century Florence. New York: Routledge Press.

Parkin, R., & Stone, L. (2004). Kinship and family: An anthropological reader. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell.

Pasternak, B., Ember, C., & Ember M. (1997). Sex, gender, and kinship. Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.

Seymour, S.C. (1999). Women, family, and child care in India: A world in transition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Stone, L. (Ed.) (2001). New directions in anthropological kinship. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield.

Westermarck, E. (1891). The history of human marriage. London: McMillan and Co.

Weston, K. (1997). Families we choose: Lesbians, gays, kinship. New York: Columbia University Press.

1. What kind of marriage is the norm in your family? If you could change it, would you? Why or why not?

This answer depends on your individual circumstances, but it should correctly identify some of the types of marriage listed in the text. Whether or not you find it to be personally the most suitable marriage arrangement depends on the specifics you choose to focus on, but your opinion should be justified. A hypothetical answer is below, briefly explained.

• For example, if serial monogamy is the pattern in your family, this means that people partner with others one at a time, but they do not tend to stay married very long. This could be because they fall in romantic love without realizing that their personalities for long-term cohabitation are at odds with one another. They all have kids, so the families grow exponentially each time they marry someone else. It is nice for the kids to have so many playmates that are half-siblings, but the legal proceedings get complicated.
• Instead, it would be interesting if a form of arranged group marriage, or polygamy, was the norm for us. That way, instead of people having to always split up their belongings and figure out arrangements for the kids, we could all be a large family. And since it would be arranged by those who care about our well-being, it would likely be with people with whom we share core values.

See pages 143-148 of your text.

2. Why is it important that the AAA responded to US President Bush’s amendment in 2004? How can anthropology help inform better policy?

This answer draws on the significance of anthropology’s contributions to contemporary policies by providing better information regarding cultural norms and practices. It was erroneous of Bush to generalize marriage as he did (you should spell out here what he got wrong), and the responding statement corrected that misinformation.

See page 145 of your text.

3. What is the difference between exogamy and endogamy? What are their relative advantages and disadvantages?

This answer is relatively straightforward and should demonstrate your ability to define the relative terms and explore how their main characteristics can be advantageous and/or detrimental, given specific contexts. You should not apply your own personal beliefs or opinions here, such as saying that one is always better than the other. It is critical to note that certain contexts make different processes more desirable or beneficial.

• Exogamy is the practice in which marriage partners must come from different groups. Depending on the cultural norms, a person’s choice of marriage partners may be required to be outside of one’s clan or lineage.
• Socially, this practice links families from different communities together, creating alliances.
• Bio-culturally, it acts to broaden the gene pool of any intermarrying group. This limits the possibility for inbreeding and leads to more genetic diversity.
• However, this practice means that inheritances, power, land holdings, community resources, and much more are spread thinner than if marriage partners come from the same group.
• It also means that those being married may come from very different backgrounds with different expectations regarding their roles and beliefs.
• When societies require that marriage partners come from the same group in society, this is called endogamy. Endogamous marriage can be seen in societies with strong ethnic, religious, or socio-economic class divisions, in which individuals tend to marry within their groups.
• This practice supports the survival of the group into the future, since the people being married have similar identities, core values, ideologies, etc. This could be especially important for a marginalized group or one whose existence is threatened in some way.
• Historically, sisters and brothers have married to preserve the royal bloodlines of ruling families.
• However, close endogamy reduces genetic diversity, increasing the risk of the expression of harmful recessive genes. This can lead to devastating effects for the group if diseases are severe.
• Endogamy also reduces the potential to create new allies and relationships outside of one’s group, which can be a negative thing depending on context.

See pages 147-150 of your text.

4. Imagine you are a woman about to marry, and you can choose between a system where there is a bride price or a dowry. Which would you choose and why?

This answer depends on your own perspective but should demonstrate that you understand fully each option; you need to justify your choice. Explain the options, how they are used, and where you might end up living.

• A bride price is when the husband’s family compensates the bride’s family for essentially “losing” a daughter. This is because she represents support and labor for a household and will likely bear children for the husband’s family line.
• A dowry is when the bride’s family essentially gives the newlyweds or the husband’s family her share of an inheritance, depending on the circumstances. This could happen when the woman lives in a neolocal residence with her husband, so the money is used for the couple’s future, or it could be in a patrilocal residence where her dowry ensures that she has upward mobility in her marriage.

See pages 152-154 of your text.

5. Are there any similarities between contemporary dating practices in North America and arranged marriages?

Your answer should describe each of the two processes, noting areas of similarity and difference.

• Dating Practices (your experience may vary):
• Blind dates/set up by friends or family
• Meeting online, meeting through work
• Courtship, dating norms
• Possible cohabitation
• Engagement period prior to marriage
• Arranged marriages:
• Parents setting up potential matches (or other close relatives)
• Potential partners coming from known backgrounds with similar ideologies
• Retain the right to veto a choice
• Marriage Meets/community registries, online sites
• “Love matches”
• Exchanging photos and information

See pages 155-157 of your text.